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01/04/2023 ---- 06/04/2023

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06.04.2023
THEME: HEALTH

Memory's Hidden Illusions: How Expectations Shape Our Recollections

Memory is a fascinating and complex aspect of human cognition. Imagine you're trying to recall where you placed your keys, and you're confident they're on the dining room table. However, upon checking, you will find them on the side table by the front door. You're not alone in experiencing such a memory mishap. Recent research reveals that our expectations can significantly influence our short-term and long-term memories. Short-term memory (STM) lasts briefly (seconds to minutes) and stores information like the car's colour that drove by or the name of a person you've just met. Long-term memory (LTM), on the other hand, can last for years or even a lifetime, enabling us to recall childhood memories or recognize a friend we haven't seen in years. While it is known that expectations can influence the formation of false memories in LTM, a series of experiments have shown that STM is also susceptible to such illusions.

These experiments involved memory displays containing actual and mirrored letters (pseudo-letters). Participants were asked to remember and later report the letters they saw. By focusing on high-confidence errors, researchers found that participants were more likely to report seeing an actual letter when a pseudo-letter was shown, and this tendency increased over time. These results suggest that prior expectations about the likely appearance of letters, based on lifelong learning and development, can shape the content of STM. Another set of studies investigated the role of world knowledge in generating illusory memories in STM. Participants were shown faces combined with roles (e.g., professor, drug dealer, artist). After a 20-minute delay, they were more likely to attribute criminal labels to faces with stereotypically black features incorrectly. This result suggests that internal biases and expectations can shape memory content. Additionally, research on cultural experiences with music revealed that participants made erroneous responses about musical mode and tonality just one second after hearing a sequence of tones. These findings indicate that world knowledge alone can influence illusory memories in STM.

So, why is it important to understand the role of expectations in memory formation? First, it highlights that our memories are not infallible, even when they seem highly reliable. This fact has implications for everyday life. We should be cautious when relying solely on our memories, especially in high-stakes situations. Second, the influence of expectations on memory formation can impact human behaviour and relationships. For example, the incorrect labelling of faces based on stereotypes can contribute to prejudiced attitudes and discriminatory behaviour. Understanding the role of expectations in memory can help us become more aware of our biases and work towards addressing them. Finally, these findings support the predictive processing view of memory formation, which posits that all memory stages involve integrating bottom-up input with top-down predictions. It means that our prior expectations can shape our memory traces, making our recollections more adaptive, efficient, and prone to errors. Memory is a dynamic and intricate process influenced by our expectations and world knowledge. The research presented here highlights the susceptibility of both short-term and long-term memory to illusions. It emphasizes the importance of understanding the factors that shape our memories. By becoming more aware of the role of expectations in memory formation, we can better understand human cognition, behaviour, and relationships, ultimately leading to a more nuanced view of the world around us.

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04.04.2023
THEME: WORLD

Finland Joins NATO Amid Escalating Global Tensions and Ongoing Ukraine Conflict

As the war in Ukraine rages on, tensions between the European Union, the United States, and Russia continue to mount. The conflict has reached a point where even China's efforts to broker peace talks have failed to make headway. Amid these strained relations, Russian President Vladimir Putin has blamed the West for fueling the conflict and announced Russia's withdrawal from the New START nuclear weapons treaty. In response, NATO Secretary-General Jens Stoltenberg accused Putin of instigating the war. During a meeting in Moscow, Putin and Chinese President Xi Jinping sought alternative solutions. They discussed the conflict and the relations between their nations. Putin stated that China's peace plan for Ukraine could be utilized as a foundation to resolve the ongoing conflict, but only when the West and Kyiv are prepared. China's plan does not explicitly require Russia to withdraw from Ukraine. Instead, it focuses on peace talks and respecting national sovereignty. However, Ukraine insists on Russia's withdrawal as a precondition for discussions.

To find solutions, on March 23, EU leaders convened at a two-day summit in Brussels to discuss various topics, including support for Ukraine, energy policy for transitioning to clean sources, and the economy. The leaders aimed to finalize a €2-billion military aid package for Kyiv, with plans to consider an additional €3.5 billion in assistance in the coming months. In a provocative move, President Putin announced plans to station tactical nuclear weapons in Belarus, with the construction of a storage facility set to be completed by July 1. A small number of Iskander tactical missile systems, which can launch nuclear weapons, have already been transferred to Belarus. Adding to the instability, on April 1, an explosion in a St. Petersburg cafe killed well-known Russian military blogger Vladlen Tatarsky. It injured 25 others, with 19 requiring hospitalization. Russian authorities have opened a murder investigation, but it is unclear whether Tatarsky was the intended target.

In response to the growing tensions, on April 4, Finland is set to raise its flag at NATO headquarters in Brussels, marking its accession as the 31st member of the Western alliance. The move represents a setback for Russia's Vladimir Putin, who complained about NATO's expansion before invading Ukraine. Finland's membership has doubled the length of Russia's border with NATO member states. As the situation continues to unfold, the implications of these events are far-reaching. They could have a profound impact on global stability and security. While the world watches the ongoing war in Ukraine, it becomes increasingly clear that this conflict has not only affected the people of Ukraine but has also strained relationships between major world powers. The ongoing war in Ukraine and Finland's accession to NATO are stark reminders of the delicate balance of power in the world today. As tensions continue escalating, world leaders must find a peaceful resolution to this conflict to prevent further damage to global security and stability. The impact of these events on humanity cannot be understated, as the decisions made today will undoubtedly shape the course of history for generations to come.

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03.04.2023
THEME: ENVIRONMENT

The Silent Symphony: How Stressed Plants Speak Through Ultrasonics

Have you ever stopped to admire a plant's or a tree's beauty, wondering what secrets they hold in their silent existence? Well, recent scientific research has unveiled an astonishing fact: plants, under stress, emit ultrasonic sounds that can be detected and interpreted by other organisms. This groundbreaking discovery changed our perception of the plant kingdom, which was long thought to be almost silent. Like all living organisms, plants are exposed to various stressors throughout their lives. These stressors can be anything from drought and lack of water to being damaged by insects or other animals. As a result, plants have developed ways to react and adapt to these conditions to ensure their survival. Previously, it was assumed that plants responded to stress primarily through chemical and physical changes. Still, the latest research has added another dimension to our understanding of plant communication: sound.

A series of studies have shed light on the fascinating world of plant bioacoustics. It turns out that when plants are exposed to stress, such as drought or physical injury, they emit sounds within the ultrasonic range of 20-100 kHz. These sounds can be detected from 3-5 meters and are audible to many mammals and insects, such as mice and moths. It is even more fascinating that these ultrasonic emissions can be classified and distinguished based on the type of stress the plant is experiencing. Machine learning algorithms were used in the research to differentiate between sounds emitted by plants under different stress conditions, such as drought and cutting. The classification accuracy reached up to 84%, demonstrating the informative nature of these airborne sounds. Moreover, the study found that the pattern of sound emission correlates with the plant's transpiration rate. In contrast, the daily number of sounds increases during the first days of dehydration and declines as the plant dries up. But what causes these sounds in the first place? One possible explanation is cavitation, a process in the plant's stem. Cavitation is the formation of bubbles in a liquid, which would be the water within the plant's xylem (vascular tissue). The bubbles form due to decreased pressure, which can happen during dehydration or when the plant is cut. The size and dynamics of the bubbles, as well as the diameter of the plant's xylem, could influence the frequency and intensity of the sounds emitted.

The discovery of these ultrasonic sounds emitted by plants has far-reaching implications for science and agriculture. In agriculture, monitoring crops' water and disease states is paramount. Efficient water use is critical, as climate change exposes more areas to drought. With the ability to distinguish between drought-stressed and control plants based on the sounds they emit, this new research could pave the way for more precise irrigation methods, saving up to 50% of water expenditure and increasing crop yield. It could have significant economic and ecological implications, contributing to food security and environmental conservation. The study also raises the possibility that other organisms, such as insects and nearby plants, might have evolved to interpret these sounds and respond to them accordingly. For example, some moths, which use tomato and tobacco plants as hosts for their larvae, can hear and react to ultrasound within the frequency range observed in the study. It is not far-fetched to think that plants might have developed the ability to "listen" to the sounds emitted by their stressed or injured neighbours, adjusting their behaviour to increase their drought tolerance or defence mechanisms.

While the research on plant bioacoustics has opened new doors to understanding plant communication and stress responses, the study still has limitations, and further research is needed. The results were obtained from a limited number of plant species, and whether these findings can be generalized to other plants remains to be seen. Further exploration of the sounds emitted under different conditions, such as various pathogens or life stages, is warranted. Lastly, a deeper understanding of the sound emission mechanisms and the challenges of recording and analyzing plant sounds in the field amidst a broader range of background noises is essential. The discovery of ultrasonic sounds emitted by plants under stress has broadened our understanding of the plant kingdom and unveiled a whole new world of potential applications in agriculture and ecological conservation. It is a reminder that there is still much to learn about the secrets in the seemingly silent world of plants. As we continue to unlock the mysteries of plant communication and bioacoustics, we might find innovative ways to protect our planet's flora and ensure a greener, more sustainable future for all.

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01.04.2023
THEME: ENVIRONMENT

The Deep Sea Mining Dilemma: Balancing Economic Opportunity and Environmental Protection

Deep sea mining is the process of extracting valuable minerals from the depths of the ocean floor, which can range from a few hundred meters to several thousand meters below the surface. The idea of deep sea mining dates back to the 1960s when geologists first identified vast mineral deposits in the ocean depths. With technological advances and growing demand for metals, deep-sea mining is increasingly seen as a viable option for meeting the world's mineral needs. Recently, the United Nations announced the opening of applications for deep-sea mining projects, signalling a potential shift towards the commercial exploitation of the ocean floor. However, the decision has raised concerns about the environmental impact of deep-sea mining and its potential consequences on the ocean's delicate ecosystem.

There needs to be more consensus on how to regulate deep-sea mining effectively. The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, which governs the use of the ocean, established the International Seabed Authority (ISA) to regulate the exploration and exploitation of marine mineral resources. However, the ISA has yet to develop a comprehensive regulatory regime for deep-sea mining, and many questions remain about balancing the economic opportunities of mining with the need to protect the ocean environment. Compounding this challenge is the deadline for the ISA to develop a regulatory framework for deep-sea mining. Under the treaty signed on March 5, 2021, the ISA has until July 2023 to finalize regulations for the commercial exploitation of marine mineral resources. This deadline poses a significant challenge for the ISA, as it must navigate a complex set of technical, environmental, and economic issues to develop a regulatory framework that balances the needs of different stakeholders. Several nations, international organizations, and environmental groups oppose deep-sea mining due to concerns about its environmental impacts, potential social consequences, and insufficient regulations. Some of these nations include Fiji, Papua New Guinea, Vanuatu, Tonga, the Cook Islands, and other Pacific Island countries, which have formed the "Alliance of Small Island States" to advocate for a moratorium on deep-sea mining until its impacts on the environment and local communities are better understood. These nations and groups argue that deep-sea mining could cause significant harm to the marine environment, which is already under stress from climate change, overfishing, and other human activities. Deep-sea mining could destroy habitats and disrupt ecosystems, impacting biodiversity and potentially driving species to extinction. Additionally, mining activities could release toxic sediments into the water, impacting marine life and causing long-term damage to the ocean floor, which could take decades or even centuries to recover. To oppose deep-sea mining, these nations and groups are taking various actions, such as lobbying the United Nations to ban deep-sea mining, filing lawsuits against mining companies, and promoting alternative approaches to mineral extraction, such as recycling and reducing demand.

Despite these concerns, there are reasons why deep-sea mining can be an opportunity for economic development. The ocean floor contains vast reserves of valuable minerals, including copper, nickel, cobalt, and rare earth elements. These are essential components in various products, including smartphones, electric vehicles, and renewable energy technologies. The potential benefits of deep sea mining are particularly significant for developing countries that lack secure mineral supply sources on land. The exploitation of these resources could provide an opportunity for economic growth. However, there are also significant concerns about the potential environmental impact of deep-sea mining. Extracting minerals from the ocean floor can disrupt the marine ecosystem, which faces significant challenges due to climate change and other human activities. The crushing of living organisms, removing habitat substrate, and creating sediment plumes are just some potential environmental consequences of deep-sea mining. There is also the possibility of other environmental damage through malfunctions in the riser and transportation system, hydraulic leaks, and noise and light pollution. Deep-sea mining presents a complex dilemma that requires careful consideration of its potential benefits and drawbacks. While the exploitation of marine mineral resources could provide an opportunity for economic growth and development, it also poses significant risks to the marine environment and the communities that rely on it. To address these challenges, the ISA must develop a comprehensive regulatory framework that balances the needs of different stakeholders and protects the ocean environment for future generations.

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